legally incorporated in 1997 as Alternative Medicine, Inc. to the alternative medicine IPA. integration of complementary alternative medicine with …
Review Article
REIKI–REVIEW OF A BIOFIELD THERAPY HISTORY, THEORY, PRACTICE, AND RESEARCH
Pamela Miles and Gala True, PhD Pamela Miles, founder of the Institute for the Advancement of Complementary Therapies IACT, is a Reiki master and meditation teacher who lectures on complementary medicine and develops educational programs and research initiatives on energy medicine for hospitals and health care organizations in the Northeast Gala True, PhD, is a Senior Scientist and the Assistant Director of Medical Ethics at the Albert Einstein Center for Urban Health Policy and Research in Philadelphia, PA future directions for research and the development of programs that integrate Reiki into clinical care, raising questions and issues that must be considered in these endeavors The National Institutes of Health Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine NCCAM has classified energy medicine therapies into 2 basic categories: biofield therapies and bioelectromagnetic-based therapies
According to the NCCAM classifications, biofield modalities are defined as those therapies intended to affect energy fields that purportedly surround and interpenetrate the human body These therapies, which include Reiki, Qigong, and Therapeutic Touch, involve touch or placement of the hands in or through biofields, the existence of which have not yet been scientifically proven Bioelectromagnetic-based therapies involve the use or manipulation of electromagnetic fields EMFs, invisible lines of electrical force or currents Although the existence of EMFs has been demonstrated, therapeutic use of these fields is unique to complementary modalities such as magnet therapy4 Biofield therapies, including Reiki, are generally accepted as low-risk interventions The widespread use of these therapies, coupled with anecdotal evidence of efficacy, indicate a need for further study of this important category of complementary and alternative medicine CAM Because of their foundation in subtle energies
that as yet lie beyond technologys ability to consistently measure, biofield therapies present a special research challenge An increasing number of nurses, physicians, and other healthcare providers have begun integrating biofield therapies into patient care, and a growing number of hospital-based programs offer these modalities to patients and staff The line between what is alternative, complementary, or integrative is often blurred when it comes to biofield therapies Despite these challenges, efforts to describe these modalities, their practice, and their use by patients, as well as development of well-designed studies of safety and efficacy, are important and underway TRADITIONAL MEDICAL SYSTEMS AND REIKI Understanding Reiki requires an awareness of indigenous healing traditions that exist alongside, and pre-date, the Western biomedical model In these systems, the ability to facilitate healing derives from knowledge and practices that are passed from master practitioner to student,
who in turn becomes a master
Reiki is a vibrational, or subtle energy, therapy most commonly facilitated by light touch, which is believed to balance the biofield and strengthen the bodys ability to heal itself Although systematic study of efficacy is scant thus far, Reiki is increasingly used as an adjunct to conventional medical care, both in and out of hospital settings This article will describe the practice and review the history and theory of Reiki, giving readers a context for the growing popularity of this healing modality Programs that incorporate Reiki into the clinical setting will be discussed, as well as important considerations in setting up such a program Finally, the research literature to date on Reiki will be reviewed and evaluated, and directions for future Reiki research will be suggested mericans increasingly reach beyond conventional medicine to meet their healthcare needs, and research indicates that therapies based in energy medicine are a favorite choice1,2
Consistent with findings of increased use is the recognition that patients seldom discuss the use of these therapies with their physician, and that the majority of conventional medical providers are unfamiliar with the principles underlying these modalities In this manuscript, we focus on Reiki RAY kee, a biofield therapy facilitated most commonly by light touch, 3 attempting to evaluate and synthesize what is known about the history, theory, and practice of Reiki, as well as give an overview of the state of Reiki research We conclude with thoughts about
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practitioner Such lineages of healers are seen across cultures and share common threads; however, there are always cultural and idiosyncratic variations The indigenous traditions of
China, Tibet, Africa, Russia, Native America, and India Ayurveda are known in the West In Europe, the Iceman who died 5300 years ago in the Swiss Alps and was recently discovered frozen in a glacier was noted to have parasites in his intestines He carried a medicine pouch and was deemed to be self-medicating with local mushrooms If this is true, the Iceman clearly had access to medical information through non-scientific means5 Although some indigenous and traditional medical systems are known to have used advanced medical technologies such as brain surgery in India and Africa, these systems often emphasize the development of skills in areas overlooked in conventional medicine For example, traditional healers use remedies from the natural environment and focus on accessing the subtle vibrational field, which is understood to be related to consciousness Intervening in the vibrational field is deemed necessary for lasting benefit The training of traditional healers requires they become
adept in navigating subjective realms of awareness, a skill developed through meditative techniques and disciplined spiritual practice HISTORY Mikao Usui 1865-1926, a lifelong practitioner of Tendai Buddhism and dedicated spiritual aspirant, formulated the roots of what has come to be called Reiki in early 20th century Japan He trained in a monastery as a young boy, and practiced martial arts from age 12, achieving mastery in several disciplines Perhaps because of Usuis background in Buddhism, Reiki is often referred to as an ancient Tibetan technique, although there is no evidence that this is true Mikao Usui clearly referred to himself as the founder of Reiki6 and Tibetan medicine does not include handson energetic healing Those who approached Usui for healing were given a few minutes of light healing touch before being instructed in his method of spiritual self-development The first level of teaching was freely given Thereafter, students had to earn other levels through disciplined
practice Each student was taught according to his nature, dedication, and accomplishment Usuis philosophy was non-dualist, and he stressed spiritual unfolding through regular practice of spiritual techniques which included the use of symbols in ways reminiscent of Taoist talismanic healing images His teaching was a system of spiritual practice; any physical, emotional, or mental healing that might occur was seen as a natural by-product personal communication, Kenneth Cohen, December 2002 Students referred to the teachings as UsuiTeate Usui Hand Touch or Usui Hand Healing Usui stressed the importance of peaceful mental demeanor, and offered his students 5 precepts to guide them: Just for today, do not anger Just for today, do not worry Be humble
Be honest in your work Be compassionate to yourself and others In the last year of his life, Usui was approached by his student Chujiro Hayashi 1878-1940, a retired naval officer, with a request to develop the therapeutic aspects of the system
separate from the stringent meditative practices Usui agreed After Usuis death, Hayashi further developed the system as a practical healing technique without the perceived encumbrance of spiritual practices He called his technique Hayashi Shiki Reiki, and although Usui sometimes used the word, it is likely from Hayashi that the system came to be called Reiki, Rei meaning universal or highest and Ki meaning subtle energy,7 like the Chinese chi It should be noted the vibration accessed in Reiki arises from nondual primordial chi, or Tao, as distinguished from the bioenergetic level of chi stimulated by therapeutic acupuncture 8 Although Hayashis technique was simplified from Usuis system of spiritual practices, his use of the word Reiki implied that even with his modifications, the healing technique remained rooted in spirituality, that he was accessing the same non-dual conscious vibration for healing Hayashi opened a small 8-bed clinic in Tokyo where 16 practitioners gave Reiki
treatment in pairs At some point, Hayashi diverged from Usuis typically Buddhist approach of making teachings and healing available at a low monetary cost, noting that people were more engaged when paying fees for their healing6,9 As Reiki became available beyond the circle of spiritual aspirants, it entered the medical marketplace and the issue of compensation for both training and treatment had to be addressed Mrs Hawayo Takata 1900-1980, a first generation American, came to Hayashis clinic in 1936 suffering from respiratory and abdominal complaints9 After receiving treatment for 4 months and recovering her health,10 she became his student and practiced in his clinic Takata returned home to Hawaii in 1937, carrying Hayashis instruction to bring Reiki to the West Hayashi visited Hawaii in 1938, teaching and lecturing, and trained Takata to be a Reiki master Hayashi signed a certificate on February 21, 1938 attesting that Takata was a fully credentialed Reiki master–the only one
outside Japan at the time, and the first woman Hayashi understood deeply that Usui wanted the teachings to be widely accessible, and was emboldened to step beyond the cultural tradition that would have restricted the practice to Japanese men Faced with the challenge of articulating a Japanese healing technique to a largely Christian population in the socio-political climate preceding World War II, Takata pragmatically reshaped the origins of Reiki, presenting Usui as a Christian minister6,9 She did not, however, vary the practice from what Hayashi had taught, emphasizing the foundation of consistent self-treatment Takata taught and shared Reiki for many years in Hawaii In 1973 she was invited to the mainland, where she taught for the last 7 years of her life Takata died in December 1980, having initiated 22 Reiki masters Hayashi and Usui each trained approximately 18
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In less than 15 years after her death, Reiki
had spread around the world and returned to Japan, although rarely according to the guidelines she taught In the mid 1990s, several Western Reiki masters discovered a small group of students who were originally trained by either Usui or Hayashi One of these students clarified the distinction between vibrational and bioenergetic healing by saying: Usui-sensei told [us] that [the] method is a spiritual healing technique and an energy healing technique Spiritual healing brings fundamental healing by helping us to become part of the universal consciousness, while energy healing centers around removing the symptoms of mind and body disorders6 Advanced practitioners of biofield therapies, including Reiki, conceptualize the biofield as a continuum from the vibrational, at the deepest and subtlest level, to the bioenergetic, closer to the physical realm While this distinction has not been scientifically tested, it is important within the system of Reiki healing and essential to the theory
behind Reiki, as will be discussed below The term Reiki refers to both the healing system and the vibration accessed Nearly all Reiki practitioners outside of Japan today trace their lineage to the 22 masters trained by Takata There are also two other teachers, Hiroshi Doi and Premaratna, who offer disciplined practices descended from Usui and Hayashi This paper uses the term Reiki to refer to the traditional technique as taught by Takata, unless otherwise specified In accordance with the philosophy of Asian spiritual practices in which the practitioner is always seen as a student of the system and a master properly thinks of himself as a master student, we use the terms practitioner and student interchangeably
TRADITIONAL REIKI TREATMENT Hands-on Reiki treatment is offered through light touch on a fully clothed recipient seated in a chair or reclining on a treatment table A quiet setting conducive to relaxation is desirable, but not necessary A full treatment typically includes
placing hands on 12 positions on the head, and on the front and back of the torso Hands can also be placed directly on the site of injury or pain if desired, but the technique is neither symptom nor pathology specific11 When even light touch is contraindicated, as in the presence of lesions, the hands can hover inches off the body12 A session can be as short or as long as needed,9 with full treatments typically lasting 45 to 75 minutes The receiver need not be conscious13 and Reiki can be offered during surgery11 The practice of Reiki is primarily passive, embodying the Asian philosophy of non-action14 Offering Reiki is refreshing to the practitioner as well as the recipient Practitioners believe Reiki has the potential to rebalance the biofield at the deepest vibrational level, thereby removing the subtle causes of illness9 while enhancing overall resilience Because Reiki is a holistic modality that supports overall healing and well-being, it is not possible to predict how quickly
specific symptoms may respond Generally, in addressing chronic conditions, a minimum of 4 complete treatments is advised before evaluating clinical benefit
REIKI TRAINING Reiki is practiced at the First degree, Second degree, and master level, with each level having a defined scope of practice At the core of the training, and unique to this practice, is a series of initiations, also called empowerments or attunements, which are believed to connect the student to primordial consciousness, the intelligence that permeates creation, maintaining life-sustaining functions and directing complex cellular processes, and which is the source of subtle Reiki vibration7 This connection is believed then to be available at any time, regardless the students health, mental state or intention Self-treatment is viewed as the foundational practice for all levels9 Reiki practice is considered selfrevealing, and students are not taught Reiki as much as they are taught how to learn Reiki Initiation at each
level marks the beginning of study at that level, not the culmination of learning6,9 First degree Reiki is easily learned12 and appropriate for students of any age or state of health who have the desire to practice First degree students are able to treat themselves and others using light, non-manipulative touch to precipitate a cascade of healing vibration The effectiveness of the treatment and the recipients ability to discern the energy do not seem to be related15 It is advisable to practice a minimum of 3 months before proceeding to Second degree3 Second degree practitioners are trained in the use of specific symbols to access Reiki mentally for distant healing First and Second degree training require 8 to 12 hours of class time each and are usually taught to groups, although private instruction may be arranged There are 4 initiations in First degree, and 1 initiation for each of the 2 remaining levels3 At all levels, Reiki develops through committed practice It is not necessary,
nor is it advisable, to take higher initiations to improve ones practice The reason to study another level is to acquire that particular skill–distant healing at Second degree, or teaching and initiation at the master level At any level, students can only advance through diligent self-treatment In this way, Reiki masters have not mastered Reiki; they are simply students who feel called to teach, and who continue to learn through teaching True mastery, in the sense of Usui, Hayashi, and Takata, is not a matter of receiving an initiation, but rather a life committed to practice3 Practicing Reiki 3 to 10 years creates a reasonable foundation for teaching Master training is an apprenticeship of at least a year3 When teaching at any level, it is the Reiki masters responsibility to consider any unusual circumstances and use his or her discretion in customizing the training to fit the individual6 Reiki is learned through direct transmission from a Reiki master and cannot be learned from a
book3 None of the traditional Reiki levels include training in either professional treatment or the dynamics of the therapeutic relationship The training described above is the ideal based on Takata However, since her death in 1980, many Reiki students have not received such thorough training Today, it is common for new students to receive less than a weekend of training and leave with the misguided impression they are now Reiki masters One can
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only grow in mastery through years of disciplined practice Although there are several professional organizations for Reiki masters, the Reiki Alliance adheres most consistently to the standards set by Takata It has more than 700 members in 45 countries who honor a code of ethics that includes respecting the physician/patient relationship3 There are also Reiki masters not affiliated with the Reiki Alliance who are committed to ethical practice and the complete training and
initiation of new students It is important to note that no certificate conveys reliable information about quality of training Thus, it is useful to include a number of factors when considering a Reiki practitioners credentials, such as consistency of self-treatment, extent of clinical practice, and length of time between training at different levels These issues are addressed in other sections of this article REIKI THEORY There is no agreed upon theory for how Reiki might work, and its mechanism of action is still unknown For this reason, Reiki is subject to the criticism leveled at other CAM modalities by skeptics: it cannot be efficacious because it lacks a known biological mechanism of action As David Hufford has argued, implicit in this view is the belief that CAM claims will be proven to be true or false on the basis of present scientific knowledge, and that the acceptance of any theoretically implausible claims would require the abandonment of current scientific knowledge16 This
of course ends all inquiry before it begins, leaving no room for making connections between theories underlying energy healing practices such as Reiki, Therapeutic touch, or Qi gong, and those emerging in various branches of the conventional sciences The concepts underlying energy therapies such as Reiki have theoretical commonalities with a variety of models in physics, none of which have been experimentally linked with medicine or clinical outcomes Models in bioelectromagnetism, quantum physics,17 and super string theory18 are consistent with Asian scripture19-23 in suggesting that very subtle vibration may be the substratum of reality as we know it, and therefore such vibration may have a role to play in health and disease For example, Jan Walleczek24 and Abe Liboff25 in the field of bioelectromagnetism offer credible scientific support for the potential role of the forces of subtle bioelectromagnetic fields in physiological processes Walleczek in particular has convincingly
demonstrated that subtle magnetic fields can have measurable interactions with biological systems in the area of redox potential and hydroxylation reactions Although this area of research is in its early stages, these connections suggest that the theoretical underpinnings of Reiki and other energy therapies may not be in direct contradiction to scientific models Reiki vibration is understood to be drawn through the practitioner according to the recipients need,26 within the ability of the practitioner to carry the vibration Beginning students often find it difficult to grasp that non-doing can be so effective The flow of Reiki is believed to increase as the practitioner becomes inwardly more still, an understanding acquired only through pro-
longed practice The fact that the vibrational flow is drawn by the recipient allows for great flexibility and ease of delivery While a practitioners ability to be a conduit for the vibrations may vary, there is ultimately no wrong technique9
Reikis self-regulatory mechanism precludes overdosing–even a dry sponge only absorbs to saturation Experienced practitioners claim to notice when the healing vibrational flow decreases, at which time they move to the next hand placement27 Recipients often sense a vibrational flow, sometimes feeling heat or coolness, or waves of relaxation throughout their body, or in specific areas that may or may not correspond to where the practitioners hands are placed26-28 Such experiences may be evidence of a subtle entrainment effect, similar to that of sound healing, whereby Reiki vibrations attune the recipients biofield to greater harmony Reiki is believed to rebalance the biofield, thus strengthening the bodys ability to heal29 and increasing systemic resistance to stress It appears to reduce stress and stimulate self-healing by relaxation and perhaps by resetting the resting tone of the autonomic nervous system Proponents of Reiki believe this might lead to enhancement of immune system
function and increased endorphin production Programs Currently Incorporating Reiki into Clinical Care Table 1 provides a summary of programs that incorporate Reiki into the clinical setting The majority of these programs have not been subject to systematic evaluation due to budgetary and time constraints However, staff, patients, and program administrators report a number of benefits including reduced anxiety and lower use of pain medications, increased patient satisfaction for surgical patients,29 and decreased numbers of selfreported common gerontological complaints such as anxiety, loneliness, insomnia, and pain among older individuals living in the community Reiki can easily fit within the harm reduction model30 and can be successfully used in self-treatment in combination with appropriate medical/psychiatric care by people with combined HIV and psychiatric diagnoses for emotional centering, pain management, and support in recovery readiness Children with cancer and their families
practice First degree Reiki on themselves and one another Reiki is a supportive therapy for hospice and palliative care31 OVERVIEW OF REIKI IN CLINICAL PRACTICE Although Reiki was first used in lay practice, it is increasingly used in a variety of medical settings including hospice care settings;26,31 emergency rooms;32 psychiatric settings;33operating rooms;29,34 nursing homes;35 pediatric,12 rehabilitation;35 and family practice centers, obstetrics, gynecology, and neonatal care units;36 HIV/AIDS;37,38 and organ transplantation care units;38 and for a variety of medical conditions such as cancer; 3 9 pain;27,29,34 autism/special needs; infertility; neurodegenerative disorders; and fatigue syndromes Reikis popularity among the lay population is evidenced by its mention in a wide variety of publications from the New York Times and Time, to Esquire and Town Country
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TABLE 1 Reiki hospital and community based
programs Program
GENERAL MEDICINE Wilcox Memorial Hospital Lihue, Kauai, Hawaii Center for Mind Body Medicine Mid-Columbia Medical Center The Dalles, Ore Portsmouth Regional Hospital Portsmouth, NH Center for Integrative Medicine George Washington University Hospital Washington, DC HIV/AIDS Samuels Center for Comprehensive Care St Lukes-Roosevelt Hospital Center New York, NY Siloam Philadelphia, Pa CANCER Direccion de Servicios Metropolitano Sur Metropolitan South Health Center 6 hospitals serving 7000 people Santiago, Chile Integrative Therapies Program for Children with Cancer Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center New York, NY Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center Lebanon, NH Integrative Medicine Outpatient Center Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center New York, NY SURGERY Mercy Hospital Portland, Me COMMUNITY PROGRAMS Addison Gilbert Hospital Gloucester, Mass Bi-weekly Reiki clinics QuaLife Wellness Community Denver, Colo Respite Foundation New York, NY Wolfeboro Free Clinics 13
locations in NH and Me ELDER CARE Dorot New York, NY Knox Center for Long Term Care Rockland, Me Camden Health Care Center Camden, Me residents and staff treatment HOSPICE Hospice Maui Wailuku, Maui, HI Assured Home Health and Hospice Chehalis, Wash Good Samaritan Home Health and Hospice Puyallup, Wash Whidbey General Hospital Home Health Hospice Program Coupville, Wash
Persons Served
Patients Staff
Services Offered
Treatment Training
Inpatients and Outpatients Outpatients
Treatment Treatment and training
Adults with HIV/AIDS, family members and caregivers People with HIV/AIDS and families
Treatment and training
Treatment and training
Children with cancer
Treatment
Children with cancer and their families
Treatment and training
Radiation oncology patients Cancer patients
Treatment Treatment and training
Surgical patients and staff
Treatment
Community
Treatment
People with serious illnesses Families with special needs Community members
Treatment and training Treatment
Treatment
Elders Patients Residents and staff
Training Treatment Treatment
Patients Patients, families, caregivers, staff In-patients and out-patients
Treatment and training Treatment Treatment and training
Patients
Treatment
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There are 3 tiers of Reiki practice: Individuals who use Reiki for themselves, family, and friends; Licensed or unlicensed health care professionals either offering full Reiki treatment or combining Reiki with other modalities such as a massage therapist starting/ending treatment with a few minutes of Reiki, or a physician using Reiki to ease the discomfort of an examination; Hospital-affiliated and community-based programs offering Reiki treatment or training Reiki appears to be an effective stress reduction technique that easily integrates into conventional medicine12 because it involves neither the use of substances nor manipulative touch that might be contraindicated or carry
unknown risks, and because the protocol for Reiki treatment is flexible, adapting to both the need of the patient and of the medical circumstances Reiki can be used to support conventional medical interventions12,27,40 In addition, when used on a conscious patient, the experience is relaxing and pleasant, increasing patient comfort, enhancing relationships with caregivers, and possibly reducing side effects of procedures and medications Staff report they enjoy giving Reiki treatments12 Caregivers who routinely have to hurt patients in order administer needed medical care express gratitude for a tool that minimizes patient discomfort and quickly soothes distressed children 29,36 There is limited but promising preliminary research evidence for Reikis use in pain management First degree practice is easily learned and can be used in selftreatment26 Training patients to practice Reiki self-treatment may reduce the side effects of common medical interventions and empower patients with a
simple, effective skill to address anxiety, insomnia, and pain26 at modest cost41 A patient with resources to address his own suffering is better equipped to comply with conventional medical protocols and be a responsible partner to his medical caregivers11 INTRODUCING REIKI INTO CLINICAL PROGRAMS AND HOSPITALS Even in the absence of a large body of standardized research, clinicians and hospital administrators are including Reiki into patient care12 With this in mind, we outline some of the challenges and issues that are being faced42 There are 3 avenues through which Reiki is being incorporated into conventional medical care: Medical personnel are learning First degree Reiki, using it for self-care, and integrating comforting touch into routine medical care; Reiki practitioners are offering treatment to patients and staff; Hospital-based education programs are training patients, family members and caregivers in First degree Reiki It is a challenge to locate and identify Reiki
practitioners who have the training, clinical experience, and professionalism neces-
sary to be part of a healthcare team43,44 There is currently no licensing for Reiki, nor, given its diversity and apparent low-risk, is there likely to be The first step when bringing Reiki into clinical settings is the decision to offer treatment or training or both A Reiki master is needed if Reiki training will be offered, and a traditionally trained Reiki master who has taken training over several years and has additional years of clinical experience is best equipped to set up or supervise a program A First or Second degree practitioner who has adequate training and clinical experience, who values integrative medical collaboration, and who has references from medical practitioners is qualified to give treatment An otherwise qualified Reiki practitioner may need guidance on how to work in a medical rather than a private practice environment45 Once expectations are communicated and agreed upon,
there may be advantages to using non-medical Reiki practitioners rather than Reiki trained medical professionals when offering Reiki to patients Integrative medicine calls for the incorporation into medical settings of dedicated and experienced lay CAM practitioners even when their particular expertise lies outside the conventional academic paradigm16,46 There are no professional standards in the practice of Reiki and therefore certificates have little meaning Discussion of the following questions can be useful when evaluating a practitioners expertise and appropriateness for collaboration in a medical setting: 1 When did you complete each level of training and how many hours of training did you receive at each level? 2 Do you practice daily self-treatment? 3 What clinical experience have you had since your training? 4 How do you describe Reiki? 5 How would you respond to questions about the meaning of various sensations a recipient might have during or after treatment? 6 How do you
feel during and after giving treatment? 7 What role do you see yourself playing as part of an interdisciplinary healthcare team? The standard of care should be followed for any patient who is receiving Reiki therapy in a clinical setting, including close monitoring of medications Individuals with diabetes, in particular, have been reported to require less medication once beginning treatment Outpatients with HIV/AIDS have been able to reduce psychiatric medications under medical supervision when using Reiki self-treatment It is of interest that people with HIV/AIDS also report greater openness to availing themselves of the benefits of conventional pharmaceutical treatment and increased ease of compliance after using Reiki self-treatment47 STATE OF THE RESEARCH LITERATURE ON REIKI The preponderance of Reiki studies reported in the literature to date consists of a limited number of case reports, descriptive studies, or randomized controlled studies conducted with a small number of
patients This is in keeping with much of the current
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research on complementary therapies For example, Ke and colleagues reviewed CAM studies from 11 American Medical Association journals, and found that one third of the studies were traditional or narrative reviews and one fifth were randomized, controlled trials48 Although few of the published studies of Reiki are randomized controlled trials, it is important to review this literature in order to understand the context of current practice patterns of Reiki and to plan future research from health services research to randomized controlled trials Because of parallels between Reiki, Therapeutic Touch, and distant healing such as intercessory prayer, these modalities have sometimes been studied together, further confounding the ability to evaluate the separate effects of these therapies Relevant randomized, placebo-controlled studies looking at Reiki in combination
with these other forms of energy healing will be included here Table 2 Randomized controlled studies of Reiki and other energy healing and distance therapies Astin and colleagues undertook a systematic review of randomized trials of any form of distant healing, defined as strategies that purport to heal through some exchange or channeling of supraphysical energy49 This review included randomized placebo-controlled studies of Reiki, and it is worth reviewing selected findings Through an electronic review of MEDLINE, PsychLIT, EMBASE, CISCOM, and Cochrane Library databases, the researchers identified 23 trials involving 2774 patients Only studies that included random assignment and placebo or other control were included in the analysis Studies were also limited to those published in peer-reviewed journals and which were clinical, rather than experimental in nature Astin et al identified over 100 clinical trials of distant healing, with 23 meeting the criteria outlined above These studies
were broken down into 3 subcategories: distant healing including Reiki, prayer, and Therapeutic Touch Each study was evaluated for methodological quality using Jadads guidelines on method of randomization, description and method of placebo-control, and description of withdrawals and dropouts50 Each study was also evaluated as to whether or not it was adequately powered and whether randomization was successful The effect size for other distant healing which included Reiki was 038, P0073, for prayer the effect size was 025 P0009 and for Therapeutic Touch the effect size was 063 P0003 Effect sizes were also calculated for the 16 studies in which both patient and evaluator were blinded, which yielded an effect size 040, P001 In a series of studies beginning in the early 1990s, Wirth and his colleagues investigated the efficacy of Reiki, in combination with various other forms of energy and distance healing, on pain after extraction of the third molar;51 wound healing;52 hematological
measures;53 and multi-site surface electromyographic measurements sEMG and autonomic measures54 Wirth demonstrated significant reduction in pain and blood urea nitrogen BUN and a trend toward normalization of blood glucose for those subjects who had higher than normal levels53 Mansour and colleagues undertook a study to evaluate
whether subjects and independent observers could be successfully blinded to sham versus real Reiki55 The study used a 4round, crossover experimental design with 20 blinded subjects 12 college students, 4 breast cancer survivors, and 4 observers Two Reiki practitioners were recruited, and 2 actors who closely resembled them were trained in the movements of Reiki 33 Subjects received consecutive treatments from 2 different practitioners during each round of the intervention The following combinations of practitioners were used: Reiki plus Reiki, or placebo plus placebo, or Reiki plus placebo, or placebo plus Reiki The subjects were asked to evaluate the
interventions and guess which treatments were administered by a real Reiki practitioner and which by a placebo Reiki practitioner None of the subjects accurately distinguished the Reiki practitioners from the placebo practitioners, suggesting that studies using hands-on Reiki therapy can be blinded These findings support the work of Ai and colleagues, who reported successful blinding of patients and independent observers in the use of placebo versus real Qigong therapy56 Another interesting finding from the Mansour study came from subjects self-report of sensations, such as tingling and heat, that were experienced during each round of treatment Subjects indicated that these sensations were most intense during the second round of the intervention, when they received Reiki plus Reiki The investigators noted this might suggest a cumulative Reiki effect55 Finally, a study by Shiflett et al15 used a modified doubleblind placebo control design to investigate effects of Reiki on 50 subacute
ischemic stroke patients Ten patients were treated by a Reiki master, 10 were treated by practitioners trained in First degree, and 10 were treated by sham practitioners who had been trained in Reiki techniques but had not received initiation into Reiki An additional 20 historical control subjects identified through hospital records were used as a no-treatment comparison group Results showed no evidence of short-term benefit in terms of functioning or depression, as measured by standardized instruments However, the authors note that data on long-term and cognitive change were not available, and so it was not possible to measure the potential impact of Reiki on these dimensions Exploratory studies of physiological changes associated with Reiki One study by Wetzel, investigated the hypothesis that touch therapies increase oxygen-carrying capabilities as measured through changes in hemoglobin and hematocrit values57 Wetzel measured changes in these values over a 24-hour period, during
which the intervention group, 48 essentially healthy adults, participated in Level I Reiki training The intervention group demonstrated significant changes in both hemoglobin and hematocrit values, as compared to a small control group of 10 healthy medical professionals, which demonstrated no change Wardell and Engebretson used a single group repeated measure design to study the effects of 30-minutes of Reiki on 23 healthy subjects58 Data on biological markers related to the stress reduction response, including state anxiety, salivary IgA
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and cortisol, blood pressure, galvanic skin response, muscle tension, and skin temperature were collected before, during, and after the Reiki session Results indicated biochemical changes in the direction of increased relaxation and immune responsivity, with significant reduction in state anxiety, drop in systolic blood pressure, and increase in salivary IgA levels There was a
non-significant reduction in salivary cortisol, which has been linked to longevity in breast cancer survivors59 Brewitt, Vittetoe, and Hartwell studied 5 patients with a variety of chronic illnesses multiple sclerosis, lupus, fibromyalgia, and thyroid goiter who received 11 Reiki treatments over a 9week period60 They measured changes in electrical skin resistance at over 40 sites corresponding with acupuncture/conductance points, and collected patient reports of anxiety, pain, and mobility Significant changes occurred at 3 skin points corresponding to acupuncture meridians, and patients also reported increased relaxation, reduced pain, and increased mobility While results may have been biased by the lack of prior hypotheses regarding which specific points would be active, the study suggests interesting directions for future research Descriptive and phenomenological studies A number of recent observational and descriptive studies have focused on the effects of Reiki in reducing pain and
increasing relaxation and a sense of well-being in patients In 1997, Olson and Hansen investigated the impact of Reiki on chronic pain using a pre- and post-test design and validated self-report measures Twenty volunteers who experienced chronic pain from a variety of causes, including cancer, demonstrated a significant decrease in pain after receiving a single 75 minute Reiki session61This study is limited by its design and the existence of a number of potentially confounding variables, but it does point to possible clinical applications of Reiki that should be studied further The Windana Society in Melbourne, Australia has operated a Reiki clinic for more than 10 years and provides holistic care to clients who are undergoing treatment for withdrawal from drugs and alcohol62 The staff reviewed clinical records and conducted a client survey Both clients and staff attribute a number of client outcomes to Reiki therapy, including reduced pain and improvements in clients sleep patterns,
mood, and clarity of thinking Their data supports the hypothesis that Reiki promotes a greater sense of self-awareness and connectedness, and brings profound relaxation Clients described Reiki as bringing them a sense of peace and well-being that enabled them to continue with their recovery and enhanced their counseling sessions The heightened state of awareness and sense of inner peace and calm reported by clients at Windana were also identified as a major theme in qualitative data collected by Engebretson and Wardell58 Subjects expressed feelings of safety and perceived relationship with the practitioner Some also described what the authors defined as a liminal state of consciousness, hovering between awareness and sleep The authors noted that such liminal states are often associated with spiritual experiences and
cross-cultural ritual healing practices They propose that the subjective nature of the experience may be related to its effectiveness and that commonly used research
methods may lack the complexity needed to capture the non-linearity of the subjects experience Incorporating these viewpoints is essential to the effective design of future studies of Reiki The sense of connectedness felt by the above subjects towards an unfamiliar practitioner is of interest in light of studies that have identified practitioner-patient bonding as an important factor in healing63 Descriptive and qualitative data provide us with important insights into the perceived benefits of Reiki from the viewpoint of those who use it in a real world healthcare setting DIRECTIONS OF FUTURE RESEARCH Although it comes mostly from descriptive studies or randomized controlled trials with design limitations, evidence of the beneficial effects of Reiki makes a compelling case for the need for further research Future studies to identify possible mechanisms should build upon work already done and be informed by emerging theories in the physical sciences At the same time, it is critical to
undertake well-designed studies of specific biological effects, as well as potential clinical benefits of Reiki In the case of biofield therapies, it is important to understand what practitioners consider to be essential to the transmission of healing energy In Reiki, it is initiation and passive vibrational flow rather than intention that is essential and this explanatory model should be taken into account Involving practitioners who are knowledgeable regarding the theory and practice of Reiki and familiar with the methods and constraints of scientific inquiry in the earliest stages of study design will greatly enhance the quality of research A greater incorporation into CAM research of qualitative methods and mixed methodological design where qualitative methods are used to expand upon and elucidate findings from quantitative data would be useful in research in energy medicine46,-64-65 Thus, for example, if qualitative and descriptive data described above tells us that recipients of
Reiki report greater self-awareness, feelings of centeredness, and overall well-being, then these are important outcomes to try to measure, even if associations between these patient-centered outcomes and clinically meaningful outcomes, such as improvement in function or greater receptivity to therapeutic counseling, are difficult to measure Randomized, controlled trials may not be the ideal strategy in cases where the outcomes being measured are related to chronic disease with uncertain trajectory, or where the treatment being investigated is not easily standardized or consists of multiple components66 Further research using objective markers to track response to an intervention may be able to use cutting edge genetic tools such the TheraTrak gene and protein expression system from Source Precision Medicine Boulder, CO67 Here a patients blood is mixed with a panel of highly sensitive and calibrated inflammatory genetic markers that track a patients response to a therapeutic
intervention such as Reiki in much the same way we have historically used
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TABLE 2 Summary of Randomized, Controlled Studies of Reiki and Related Modalities Sample Size, Population 23 trials involving 2774 patients
Main Author, Year Astin 200049
Design Systematic review of randomized, placebo-controlled trials of distant healing modalities
Results 13 57 of 23 trials yielded statistically significant treatment effects, 9 showed no effect over control interventions, and 1 showed a negative effect
Comments The authors identified a number of limitations in studies of distance healing, including underpowered studies and inadequate randomization resulting in non-homogeneous study groups The authors concluded that further study of distant healing interventions is merited Study limited by small sample size and absence of a power analysis Use of a design where individual subjects served as their own control is both a
strength and a weakness of the study Studies limited by potential confounding variables, such as the presence of a research assistant in the room during intervention and by nonhomogeneous study groups
Wirth 199351
Randomized, controlled trials, intervention received Reiki and LeShan
21 patients with impacted third molar
Treatment group experienced less pain in degree and intensity, results were statistically significant
Wirth 199652
Review of 5 randomized, controlled trials, combinations of Reiki and Therapeutic Touch Randomized controlled trials, combination of Reiki, TT, LeShan and Qigong
Range of 15 to 44 healthy subjects, experimentally induced full thickness biopsy wounds
Inconclusive, some studies showed significantly faster healing in treatment group, while others showed nonsignificant effects or reverse significance Treatment group demonstrated significant reduction in blood urea nitrogen and trend toward normalization of blood glucose in subjects who had higher than
normal levels Statistically significant reduction in sEMG activity at thoracic and lumbar sites, corresponding to regions associated with autonomic system and relaxation response Participants were unable to differentiate between real and sham Reiki practitioner
Wirth 199653
14 healthy subjects, including Qi gong students
Limited by small sample size, absence of power analysis, and potentially confounding variables, including use of Qi gong students as subjects Demonstrated possible bioenergetic adaptogenic effect of energy therapy
Wirth 199754
Review of 3 randomized, controlled trials, Reiki, TT, and Qi gong
Range of 12 to 44 healthy subjects, sEMG and autonomic measures
Limited by confounding variables, use of multiple healers across treatment groups, and non-homogeneous study groups, including subjects with extensive meditation experience
Mansour 199955
Randomized, placebo-controlled crossover design, Reiki and sham Reiki
20 blinded subjects, outcome measures included
ability to identify real Reiki practitioner, sensations experienced 50 subacute ischemic stroke patients, plus 20 historical controls, outcome measures related to function and depression
Demonstrates that successful blinding of participants is possible Participants in the Reiki plus Reiki intervention reported greater intensity of sensations during treatment, suggesting that Reiki energy has a cumulative effect Data on long-term and cognitive change were not available, so potential impact of Reiki on those dimensions is unknown Use of historical controls may have biased results Inadequate sample size may have resulted in Type II error failing to detect significant differences when they do in fact exist
Shiflett in press15
Randomized, placebo-controlled trial, Reiki master, Reiki Level 1 or sham Reiki
No significant differences between intervention and control groups on overall function or depression Treatment groups showed some positive effects on mood and energy
sEMG surface
electromyographic measurements; TT Therapeutic Touch
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a patients hematocrit to track response to iron supplementation Currently, 3 studies of Reiki funded by NCCAM are in progress One at the University of Michigan is investigating the use of Reiki for patients with diabetic neuropathy A second study at Albert Einstein Medical Center in Philadelphia examines the use of Reiki to improve quality of life and spiritual well-being for patients with advanced HIV/AIDS70 The third, a study for patients with fibromyalgia, is being conducted out of the Department of Family Medicine of the University of Washington School of Medicine69 Whereas biofield therapies such as Reiki, Qi gong and Therapeutic Touch may themselves have different mechanisms of action, they all share with meditation the effect of moving the system in the direction of relaxation, which has been linked to health and healing Research that builds on this
commonality would advance our understanding of the process of healing while offering patients and clinicians the choice as to which technique is the best match for a particular situation or individual Many CAMs, and subtle energy therapies in particular, aim to relieve suffering, restore balance, and return each person to wholeness The standards of replicability and generalizability so central to the scientific paradigm can be at odds with the inherent individualization of actual Reiki practice and treatment However, the fact that so many people adopt Reiki as a spiritual and healing practice and so many more seek treatment from a Reiki provider, means that we must find ways to study its potential benefits and applications Research using currently available and emerging methods will provide us with data about possible mechanisms, but more importantly, we must investigate how Reiki might benefit patients, and in what specific areas The experiences and reports of Reikis benefits from
patients, healthcare providers, and Reiki practitioners require that we do so DISCUSSION Healing is a multidimensional process that is strengthened by reducing stress and accessing psychospiritual resources Research suggests that CAM users are seeking therapies congruent with their values, beliefs, and philosophical perspectives on life and wellbeing70 Patients experience Reiki as a relaxing practice, free of dogma, that connects them to their innate spirituality through experiences unique to each individual29,35 Future research on Reiki efficacy should identify outcomes measures, such as increased sense of spiritual well-being, that are relevant to patients experiences and that may have an impact on clinical outcomesThe creation of an integrated medical practice would be advanced by hospitals collaborating with professional, well trained, highly experienced Reiki masters to develop medically relevant First degree classes with Continuing Education Units that are open to all staff
members45 Graduates of such programs report First degree Reiki training is a simple, effective practice to support personal well-being, enhance clinical skills, and deepen their appreciation of what CAM offers conventional medicine, in terms of both techniques and perspective Reiki has come full circle Usui created a spiritual practice that includes healing as a side benefit Hayashi developed a healing tech-
nique that offers spiritual enhancement to those who receive treatment regularly from themselves or another Consistency is the key Through all its modifications, Reiki remains a spiritual discipline that must be practiced regularly for its full benefit to be realized
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the following individuals for generously sharing their expertise: Kenneth Cohen, David Crow, Michael Gnatt MD, Brian Greene PhD, Sally Kempton, Barbara McDaniel, Lawrence Palevsky MD, and Eliot Tokar
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